Vaccines Changing History - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 5 Words: 1577 Downloads: 1 Date added: 2019/07/31 Category Medicine Essay Level High school Tags: Vaccines Essay Did you like this example?   Modern vaccines have been around for over a century, with the idea of vaccinations going back to ancient China and India. Most credit Edward Jenner for creating the first smallpox vaccine in the early 1770s; however, he is simply the first to do a scientific experiment and document the process.   Louis Pasteurs work would pave the way for the concept of modern vaccinations.   Doctors and scientists continue to find ways to prevent diseases causing disability and death.   Without vaccinations, many would continue to suffer diseases and the long-term effects related to them.   By preventing these illnesses, and related disabilities and death, vaccines allow people to grow and have healthy productive lives.   Especially in todays truly global economy where extensive travel is extremely common for large portions of the worlds population due to work, education or pleasure.   Although allegations of negative side effects plague the vaccination process, vaccinations continue to help today prevent illness, diseases, and death making it one of the most important events in world history.  . Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Vaccines Changing History" essay for you Create order The idea of vaccinations has been around for thousands of years.   Vaccination introduces a particular disease or illness†into a patients body.   The idea is that if the patient is subsequently exposed to a full dose of the pathogen in the future then the vaccination will have trained their natural immune system to attack and destroy it. (Parsons, 97) Ancient Indian texts talked about building immunity to illnesses.   During the Medieval era, China found a way to expose people to smallpox scabs to lessen the likelihood they would contract smallpox or at least have a severe case of smallpox.   Centuries later, English Lady Mary Montagu visited Constantinople and saw natives exposing people to smallpox to lessen the severity or existence of the disease.   Returning to England, she sought help to explore this.   Edward Jenner explored the idea of vaccination for smallpox through experiments with cowpox; however, he hated the unpredictability of exposing people to a dis ease where he could not control the severity if they got it.   Obviously, smallpox was a deadly disease in populations who continued to struggle with outbreaks, but it devastated new populations, like Native Americans, who had no prior exposure to it.   There civilizations had no immunities to the disease; therefore, entire populations were annihilated during the height of European exploration.   The precursor to the modern-day flu, the Spanish Influenza was horrific.   No other epidemic has claimed as many lives as the Spanish Influenza epidemic in 1918-1919 worldwide. (Influenza Pandemics) It is estimated between 40-70 million people died from the Spanish Influenza.   Sadly, an effective flu vaccine would not be developed for many years; however, health leaders have a plan in place should an outbreak like this happen again.  Ã‚   Polio is another disease that literally crippled the population.   When outbreaks occurred, many people lived with symptoms of varying strengths for the rest of their lives.   This disease caused muscle and joint issues which developed into serious disabilities over the years, paralysis, and even death.   In addition, yellow fever ran rampant throughout areas populations causing illness, liver disease and failure resulting in death.  Ã‚  Ã‚   The fact that these examples of diseases are virtually unheard of in the United States and around the world substantiates the point that vaccines work to keep people healthier.   The last natural case of small pox occurred in 1977.   The World Health Organization has declared this disease eradicated and the vaccine has been retired.   On March 14, 2018 the World Health Organization also published on their polio fact sheet that rates of polio throughout the world have decreased 99% down to 22 reported cases in 2017 and two of three strains have been eradicated throughout the world.   The vaccine for yellow fever is on the World Health Organizations List of Essential Medicines.   These statistics speaks volume for the success of these vaccines and the quality of life for those who remain healthy rather than suffering from any of these diseases.   The future of vaccines continues to progress.   Doctors still research vaccines for diseases that plague the world at large like malaria.   There is a pill for prevention and treatment; however, no effective vaccine.   In the last 30 years, doctors have worked to develop a human papillomavirus (HPV) which has effectively proven to help prevent certain forms of cancer. Researchers hope to find more vaccines for more cancers and other deadly diseases like AIDS which have no known cures.   The effectiveness of vaccines is not shown through the number of deaths, but the decreasing frequency of disease occurrences.   Statistics consistently show remarkable decreases in the occurrence of diseases with vaccines in areas where vaccines are used.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   With all this supporting the use and success of vaccines, there are still groups who not only do not vaccinate, but also advocate against vaccinations.   There are many reasons but two of the most common are safety concerns and political issues.   There is a growing movement that claim vaccinations cause autism.   Concerns caused Japan to ban the MMR vaccine in the early 1990s.   Dr. Hideo Honda conducted a study that showed autism rates are continuing to rise even though the vaccine has been banned in that country. In Japanese Study is more evidence that MMR does not cause autism, Andrew Cole quotes, In the United Kingdom Evan Harris, a member of the House of Commons science and technology select committee, stated The problem is that you cannot prove a negative. The people making a link are not using rational arguments, so the usual scientific approach will never convince them, and they will continue to lobby in the media.   The point is that when children and family healt h is at risk, people are emotional and look for someone to blame for illness or disability. Currently, not one single study can show direct causation between vaccination and autism; however, groups opposed to vaccines grow each year and continue to lobby Congress and the media to protect children by ceasing vaccinations.     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The second objection to vaccinations is more common in third world countries where poverty is an additional complication.   In some countries, the poor and uneducated are told that vaccines are the western worlds method of sterilizing or infecting the local populations.   Sometimes, political and religious objects overlap as in the Muslim countries.   On the History of Vaccines website, their article Cultural Perspectives on Vaccination states, the local Taliban in Southern Afghanistan have called polio vaccination an American ploy to sterilize Muslim populations and an attempt to avert Allahs will.  Ã‚   When those in power cast doubt on effectiveness and even question the morality of the vaccine, the population will follow those in power.   However, more often it allows governments to control access to vaccines and their populations if they are dealing with illness and disease they cannot cause chaos within their country.  Ã‚   Many organiza tions such as the World Health Organization try to overcome as many of these objections and obstacles as possible to move toward healthier world populations. While no studies can officially show how many lives have been saved due to vaccinations, studies can and do show their effectiveness.  Ã‚   Most vaccine studies are done on morbidity not mortality of the disease.   The hope for vaccines is that it lowers the occurrence (morbidity) of the disease, not on how many deaths the disease cause.   Vaccines do not prevent death, they hope to prevent the illness itself that causes the death.   Until a disease is eradicated, there will always be a threat of death with a disease in certain cases.   Vaccines hope to improve the odds that the disease will not affect large numbers of the population.   Studies have shown reductions in rates of diseases for which there are vaccines.   This supports the idea that vaccines work. The invent and continued development of vaccines has improved and saved the lives of countless individuals throughout the world.   The World Health Organization lists the following benefits of vaccinations: decreased resistance to antibiotics, healthcare savings, extending life expectancy, protection against bioterrorism, helping economic growth, and benefiting equity.   The World Health Organization in their February 2008 Bulletin continued We conclude that a comprehensive vaccination program is a cornerstone of good public health and will reduce inequities and poverty.   Not only have vaccines helped save lives, protect people from illness, and disability, they have also helped improve peoples quality of life and length of life.   Thus making vaccinations one of the most important events in world history and continuing to help the world population through continued research and development.  Ã‚   Works Cited Allen, Arthur, Vaccine: The Controversial Story of Medicines Greatest Lifesaver, W W Norton Company, New York, 2007. Cole, Andrew, Japanese study is more evidence that MMR does not cause autism, BMJ Publishing Group, March 12, 2005, (www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC554056) Cultural Perspectives on Vaccination, History of Vaccines by The College of Physicians of Philadelphia, January 10, 2018, (www.historyofvaccines.org/content/articles/cultural-perspectives-vaccination) Goddard, Jolyon, editor, National Geographic Concise History of Science Invention, Brown Reference Group, Washington, DC, 2010. Haven, Kendall, 100 Greatest Science Discoveries of All Time, Libraries Unlimited, Westport Connecticut, 2007. (53,54) Influenza Pandemic, History of Vaccines by The College of Physicians of Philadelphia, January 11, 2018 (www.historyofvaccines.org/index.php/content/articles/influenza-pandemics) Parker, Steve editor, Medicine: The Definitive Illustrated History, Dorling Kindersley Ltd, New York, 2016. Parsons, Paul, Science in 100 Key Breakthroughs, Firefly Books, New York, 2011. (97-99) Poliomyelitis Fact Sheet, The World Health Organization, March 14, 2018, (www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/poliomyelitis) Vaccination greatly reduces disease, disability, death and inequity worldwide, Bulletin of The  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   World Health Organization, Volume 86, Number 2, February 2008,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  (www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/86/2/07-040089/en)

The Evolution Of Social Welfare Policy - 955 Words

The Evolution Of Social Welfare Policy In â€Å"Reluctant Welfare State† Jansson reveals to us society in mid-twenith century. It was the end of a long war. The econmy was at full employment and people had homes. Due to a series events that took place, it changed the outcome of the Unites States during the mid-twenith century. New laws were impeached, and their were protection laws for the people. President Harry S. Truman was elected president in 1945. During his administration Korean War had begun. After the war military spending went down. Because North Korea invaded South Korea, President Truman raised military spending from 10 billion to 40 billion. Europe and Japan were economically devastated by the WWII. Meanwhile the United States prospered through hard economic times. The U.S dominated the world trade. American Industry created jobs thus trade was expanding manufacture goods such as automobile and housing was made affordable. The government cut taxes for homeowners. In 1941 Pearl harbor WWII ,Jansson noted that it wasn’t the programs of FDR it was WWII that turned the economy around. The G.I bill was passed in 1942 after the war. It was a bill to help veterans called 1946 Nation Health Act Mental Health. President Eisenhower was elected as president in 1953. He was a military war veteran, who ended the Korean war. Eisenhower pointed out in his speech â€Å"Every dolllor spent on guns is a dollor not spent on humanitarian programs† (Jansson,2012, p.255). The Cold WarShow MoreRelatedThe Importance Of Ethical Business Is Not New1334 Words   |  6 Pagespractices. There are lessons to be learned, both positive and negative, from businesses around the world. CEOs must work hard to find a balance between profits and public image by learning from history, understanding the evolution of business ethics, and understanding the social responsibility of businesses. CEOs in the business world today are in a precarious position. 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Economics for Business Prospects for Faculty

Question: Describe about the Economics for Business for Prospects for Faculty. Answer: Introduction This study has been focused to the concept of Economics for business. In this respect, this study has aimed to the demand and supply of a particular product. The particular product has been chosen as the dairy products of Australia. The demand for the dairy products in Australia has been increasing over the time. This will in turn reflect the production of the dairy products of the country (Australia 2014). Moreover, with the rise in the demand for a particular product, there occur or arise two possible situations, which have been discussed in this study. In this context, this study also focused to the factors, which can affect the demand as well as the supply sides of the market of dairy products. The affecting factors such as the income level of the consumers, their demographic situation etc have been mentioned in this study (Bowen and Sosa 2014). Demand and supply of dairy products in Australia and the factors that affect the demand and supply sides of the market According to the statement of Bruneel et al. (2012), the Australian consumer dairy manufacturing items are such as milk, butter, yoghurt and butter. With the increase in time, the demand for the dairy products has been increasing in Australia. The overall retail volume of the dairy products and the growth of the business has also been increased within the industry. The valuation growth for the dairy products has been increased by 5.4%. In addition, the trend of the per capita consumption has been rising significantly over the past two decades. These trends of the consumption of dairy products depend upon the taste and preferences of the buyers. These demand choices for the dairy products reflect the supply of the products. In the words of Bruneel et al. (2012), based on this taste and preferences of the consumers, the producers aimed to the manufacturing procedure. In addition, the consumers are also looking for the development of the products, the flavour and the quality of the deli vered goods, packaging as well as the innovations etc. It is known that the increase of the demand for a particular product will effectively enhance the supply of the product. As mentioned by Doidge, Segal and Gospodarevskaya (2012), the per capita consumption of milk has been reached to the highest peak. Therefore, it can be mentioned that there may arise two situations. Due to the rise in demand, the supply of the products may fall. Moreover, the price of the dairy products will also increase. In case of giffen goods, with the rise in price of the products, the demand for the product will not change. This violates the rule of the law of demand as mentioned by Klerkx and Nettle (2013). Therefore, it can be stated that if the milk products in Australia is assumed as the giffen goods, then the increase in price will not reduce the sale of the particular product. On the contrary, if the dairy products are not seemed to the giffen goods, then the rise in price will reduce the demand for the products. Moreover, in case of giffen goods, incom e effect compensated the substitution effect (Klerkx and Nettle 2013). Figure 1: Demand for the giffen goods (Source: Created by author) From the above figure, it can be observed that in case of the giffen goods, with the rise in the price of the products, the demand for the product will not decreased. It will remain same (Obizhaeva and Wang 2013). Therefore, with the rise in price from P0 to P1, the demand will also increase from Qo to Q1 and therefore, the demand curve is upward sloping. In order to discuss the affecting factors, it will be helpful to identify how these factors influence the demand and the supply of the dairy products in Australia. As per the statement of Roberts and Schlenkera (2013), the production of dairy items depends upon the regional distribution within the country. In addition, growth of the population also influences the total sales. As a result, to maintain the sales volume, the demand for the product will also significantly increase. Therefore, it can be observed that the supply of dairy products is higher in urban areas of Australia compared to the rural area and the products are supplied from the rural areas to urban areas (Zilberman et al. 2012). Moreover, the demand for the dairy products also depends upon the income level, as prices are the reflecting determinant of demand for the dairy products. Higher the level of income, greater will be the demand for the products. Hence, in case of giffen goods, the higher income group people can afford the price of the manufacturing dairy products. Therefore, the supply will also increase (Roberts and Schlenkera 2013). The suppliers will be profitable. On the contrary, in case of lower income group people, they cannot afford the increasing price and therefore, in this case the supply for the dairy products will decrease. On the other hand, Obizhaeva and Wang (2013) opined that the demand for a product enhance the supply of that definite product. In this respect, it can be stated that if the demand for milk s higher than the demand for butter, then the firms require to produce more milk in order to meet the supply. Conclusion The overall study has been developed on the concept of economics for business. In this study, the demand for the dairy products in Australia has been observed. After the analysis, it can be seen that the per capita consumption of the dairy products has been increasing in Australia. As a result, to meet the demand the supply has been also increasing. On the other hand, the factors, which can influence the demand and supply of the dairy products, have been identified. In this connection, it can be stated that the demographic conditions, the growth of population can influence the demand of the dairy products as well as the supply will also influence. References Australia, D., 2014. Australian Dairy Industry.Dairy Australia. Available online: www. dairyaustralia. com. au/Industry-information/About-the-industry. aspx. Bowen, W.G. and Sosa, J.A., 2014.Prospects for faculty in the arts and sciences: A study of factors affecting demand and supply, 1987 to 2012. Princeton University Press. Bruneel, J., Ratinho, T., Clarysse, B. and Groen, A., 2012. The Evolution of Business Incubators: Comparing demand and supply of business incubation services across different incubator generations.Technovation,32(2), pp.110-121. Doidge, J.C., Segal, L. and Gospodarevskaya, E., 2012. Attributable risk analysis reveals potential healthcare savings from increased consumption of dairy products.The Journal of nutrition,142(9), pp.1772-1780. Klerkx, L. and Nettle, R., 2013. Achievements and challenges of innovation co-production support initiatives in the Australian and Dutch dairy sectors: a comparative study.Food Policy,40, pp.74-89. Obizhaeva, A.A. and Wang, J., 2013. Optimal trading strategy and supply/demand dynamics.Journal of Financial Markets,16(1), pp.1-32. Roberts, M.J. and Schlenkera, W., 2013. Identifying supply and demand elasticities of agricultural commodities: Implications for the US ethanol mandate.The American Economic Review,103(6), pp.2265-2295. Zilberman, D., Hochman, G., Rajagopal, D., Sexton, S. and Timilsina, G., 2012. The impact of biofuels on commodity food prices: Assessment of findings.American Journal of Agricultural Economics, p.aas037.

Use of social media by college students free essay sample

The purpose of this study was to examine social media use among college students and how it affects communication with others, and college students self-concept. In this study, students completed a questionnaire which assessed personal use of social media, communication skills with friends and family, and effects on self-concept. Results indicated that all of the sampled college students were using at least one form of social networking website. There was a . 586 Pearson correlation between usage of social media and communication with family and friends. There was a . 658 Pearson correlation between usage social media and self-concept. These findings provide implications for future research on why these social networking sites have gained popularity. Key words: college students, social media, social networking, communication, and self-concept, Use of social media, Page 1 Journal of Technology Research INTRODUCTION New developments in the technological world have made the internet an innovative way for individuals and families to communicate. We will write a custom essay sample on Use of social media by college students or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Social media networks have created a phenomenon on the internet that has gained popularity over the last decade. People use social media sites such as Facebook, Twitter, and Myspace to create and sustain relationships with others (Boyd Ellison, 2007). These social media sites let those who use them create personal profiles, while connecting with other users of the sites. Users can upload photographs, post what they are doing at any given time, and send personal or public messages to whomever they choose. In this â€Å"information age,† social media sites seem to be growing in popularity rapidly, especially among young adults (Pempek, Yermolayeva, Calvert, 2008). In particular, college students form a large proportion of users on social media networks. Lenhart, Purcell, Smith, and Zickuhr (2010) found that 72% of all college students have a social media profile with 45% of college students using a social media site at least once a day. Many of these young adults use social media networks to communicate with family, friends, and even strangers. Social media sites have created new and non-personal ways for people to interact with others and young adults have taken advantage of this technological trend. The purpose of this study was to examine how social media affects college student’s communication with others and how their own self-concept. Significance of Study This field of study is important because sociability is an underlying theme in using forms of social media. Since this social media phenomenon is continuing to grow at a fast pace, it is important to understand the effects it has on personal communication. Social media networks offer a straightforward way to converse with peers and get peer feedback, as well, which may influence a young adult’s self-esteem (Pempek et al. , 2008). For example, Facebook is used primarily by students to maintain relationships with individuals they are acquainted with who live near and far (Quan-Haase Young, 2010). Facebook makes it simpler to communicate with multiple people at one time. Social media may also make it easier for users to monitor activities of people they have not seen in a while as well as reconnecting with new and old friends (Quan-Haase Young, 2010). Theoretical Framework Erikson’s theory of human development combined with Arnett’s theory of emerging adulthood provides the theoretical framework of this study. Erikson described late adolescence as a time where there are many prospects of love, work, and worldwide views (Arnett, 2000). There have been various changes in the past century, such as delayed marriage and parenting that have changed the adolescence and early adulthood stages into a more transitional time period. Emerging adulthood has developed into a more contemporary stage of development for individual in their late teens and early twenties. Emerging adulthood, which is described as ages 18-25, is a combination of the late adolescence and early adulthood stages previously identified. It is a time where individuals are trying to find a sense of self worth while exploring possibilities of love, work, and world views (Arnett, 2000). Identity formation occurs during emerging adulthood as young adults are figuring out who they are as a person. Since this is a time of Use of social media, Page 2 Journal of Technology Research exploration and change, individuals may seek peer feedback to help foster their self- identity. Emerging adults use social media communication methods as they make lifelong decisions for themselves (Arnett, 2000). Social media allows an outlet for identity exploration to occur through peer feedback and strengthening of relationships (Pempek et al. , 2008). The purpose of the study was to examine social media use among college students and how it affects communication with others, and college students self-concept. Research Questions 1. What is the extent of usage of social media among college students? 2. Is there a relationship between extent of usage of social media and communication with family and friends? 3. Is there a relationship between self-concept of college students and their use of social media? REVIEW OF LITERATURE All the studies reviewed for this review of literature used samples whose participants were college undergraduate students. College students’ use of social media is happening in rapidly growing amounts as new technology becomes available. Computer-mediated communication allows young adults to interact over social media with family and friends. Few studies have been conducted to examine how using social media and other computer-mediated communication affects communication skills (Baker Oswald, 2010). Boyd and Ellison (2007) defined social network sites as public web-based services that allow users to develop a personal profile, identify other users (â€Å"friends†) with whom they have a connection, read and react to postings made by other users on the site, and send and receive messages either privately or publicly. Individuals may choose to send private messages, write on other user’s walls, organize social activities, and keep informed about other user’s daily activities. However, users can limit themselves on what information they would like to share publicly with others. Some items they may choose to include are: pictures, favorite books and movies, birthday, relationship status, and location (Tufekci, 2008). Baym, Zhang, and Lin (2004) studied social interactions of college students across all media. Their results indicated that 64% still prefer face-to-face interaction, 18. 4% prefer the telephone, and only 16. 1% prefer the internet for making social contacts. The internet interactions reported showed that e-mail was by far the most dominant form of contact, followed by chat and instant-messaging (Baym et al. , 2004). Of the 51 participants in the study, 49 reported conducting their social life contacts through at least two, and often three, methods on any given day (Baym et al. , 2004). Similarly, one study reported that over 27% of young adults used a social networking site every day in 2009 (Lenhart, Purcell, Smith, Zickuhr, 2010). Social network sites help fulfill communication needs and wants. It is a convenient method of communication and provides the ability to stay connected with friends and family, but on the users own rate and time (Urista, Dong, Day, 2009). Users can manage their interactions within their own schedule by choosing when they want to read and respond. The internet communication is a solitary activity usually done alone. However, it is efficient because it is a one-to-many method of communication that allows users to quickly spread information. Use of social media, Page 3 Journal of Technology Research Extent of Usage of Social Media According to Lenhart et al. , (2010), about 57% of social network users are 18-29 years old and have a personal profile on multiple social media websites. In a study by Pempek, Yermolayeva, and Calvert (2009), the amount of time spent daily on social network sites varied greatly. However, an analysis of the data indicated most participants spent approximately 30 minutes a day socializing, mostly during the evening hours between 9 p. m. to 12 a. m. Students spent an average of 47 minutes a day on Facebook. More than 50% of college students go on a social networking site several times a day (Sheldon, 2008). Quan-Haase and Young (2010) found that 82% of college students reported logging into Facebook several times a day. Younger students tended to use Facebook more frequently than older students to keep in touch with friends from high school or from their hometown (Pempek et al. , 2009). When internet technology has surged in popularity, it is reasonable to be curious about its impact on human face-to-face communication. Baym et al. (2004) found that the quality and quantity of interactions in other media were not threatened by social internet sites. Online social interaction is only part of the total multimedia social relationship, not an entity in itself. Local social relationships are most likely to use face-to-face contacts and least likely to use the internet. Long distance relationships are maintained with the internet about as often as with the telephone. Internet interactions were perceived as high in quality and only slightly lower than face-to-face conversations and telephone calls. Gender is the only significant demographic variable affecting social media use, as there are some differences between use by men and women. Women are more likely than men to have a personal profile on Facebook, but men are more likely than women to sustain a profile on LinkedIn (Lenhart et al. , 2010). Furthermore, women were four to five times more likely than men to use social networking sites (Tufekci, 2008). Moreover, Sheldon (2008) found that overall women were more likely to use social media for maintaining relationships with family and friends, passing time, and entertainment, but men were more likely to use social media to meet new people. College women were also more likely than men to use the internet for relational communication, such as contacts with friends, family, and romantic partners (Baym, Zhang, Kunkel, Ledbetter, Mei-Chen, 2007). Educational experience of men and women seemed to play a factor in social media use as well. Men and women were more likely to use social network sites frequently if they had college experience (Lenhart et al. , 2010). Perceived Communication Skills via Social Networks There are many reasons for young adults to join social networking websites as they try to communicate within their social system. The principal reason reported was to maintain relationships with existing acquaintances that were already part of their social network (Sheldon, 2008). Although there are exceptions, most social network site users primarily interact on these sites to support pre-existing social relations, as opposed to meeting new people (Boyd Ellison, 2007). Another study found that Facebook and instant message were not used to meet new people, just to maintain existing social ties (Quan-Haase et al. , 2010). Passing time and entertainment were other major factors in using social media sites (Sheldon, 2008). Use of social media, Page 4 Journal of Technology Research Social media websites allow users to keep in touch with family and friends in a fairly easy and convenient way (Quan-Haase et al. , 2010). Although students did communicate with friends and family by posting information, they spent much of the time viewing information without interacting in any way. These lurking activities of reading other individuals profiles or news feeds or looking at photographs were performed frequently by a majority of respondents in a 2009 study (Pempek et al. ). This activity, while providing entertainment and social updates, constitutes only one-sided communication. Social media fulfills different communication needs for different users. Interactions via the computer facilitate communication by allowing users to keep in touch with family and friends in a convenient way, to learn about social events, and to find out about activities of other users. The gratification received from this social information helped users feel that they were a part of a peer network of knowing what was going on about events and activities (Quan-Haase et al. , 2010). Immediate communication benefits of Facebook users were seen for individuals reporting various levels of shyness. Shyness might cause individuals to avoid social, face-to-face interaction altogether, so these persons would have less communication and less social support. In a study looking at the association between online social media and friendship quality of shy individuals, results indicated that online social networks provided a comfortable environment in which shy individuals could interact with others (Baker Oswald, 2010). Data has shown that individuals who used Facebook for communication had better quality friendships. Using social media sites helped improve the quality of relationships between users. Some reasons for improving quality of relationships through using Facebook included: it was easier to get to know others better without having face-to-face conversation, users felt more comfortable, and users spent more time communicating over the computer so they gained more social support (Baker Oswald, 2010). Further, â€Å"social grooming† was an aspect of social networking that has received attention in a comparison of users and non-users of social media sites. Social grooming included expressive activities of social interaction, communication, gossip, and entertainment. Users have expressed enjoyment from keeping track of their friends’ lives and activities, but non-users were less interested in these activities (Tufekci, 2008). This social interaction of users may make it easier to communicate with others by keeping in touch with friends and family on a regular basis more often than non-users. Perceived communication was reported as being more satisfying in same-sex relationships rather than in cross-sex relationships (Baym et al. , 2007). This was true for both woman-to-woman and man-to-man interactions. It is also not surprising that communication relationships were more satisfying with friends and family rather than with mere acquaintances (Baym et al. , 2007). Self-Concept and Social Media Since social media provides an easy way to receive feedback and communicate with peers, young adults attitudes of themselves can be affected by using social media networks (Pempek et al. , 2009). Social media sites empower users to take an active role in their own socialization process and in constructing their own self-identity (Urista et al. , 2009). A personal profile is the way users present themselves; they can include as much information as desired about themselves, including posting pictures. Due to digital technology, users can show considerable information about themselves and their friends. This self-disclosure is a way to Use of social media, Page 5 Journal of Technology Research open up their own identities of how they want others to perceive them (Pempek et al. , 2009). Intimate self-disclosures help produce greater intimacy in computer-mediated communication than in face-to-face contacts (Jiang, Bazarova, Hancock, 2011). Producing an attractive personal profile for others to admire is a way to improve self-concept. It has been suggested that individuals partake in selective self-presentation on social media sites so they may appear to want to impress others (Jiang et al. , 2011). This is especially true for college students as they self-disclose frequently during this exploratory period. In accordance with Arnett’s theory, emerging adulthood (18-25 years old) is a time when there is a period of freedom and independence in a young person’s life (Arnett, 2000). Self-disclosure is an identity challenge in emerging adulthood (Pempek et al. , 2009). Self-disclosure helps by getting feedback from peers that helps develop a sense of self and strengthens existing relationships as well (Pempek et al. , 2009). Many individuals use social network sites to feel popular, trying to add as many â€Å"friends† as possible so they appear to be more admired. Young adults reported an average of 358 Facebook friends (Pempek et al. , 2009). Another study reported a mean of 200 Facebook friends, almost all of which they had met in person prior to the internet connection (West, Lewis, Currie, 2009). Additionally, another study found that young people created a virtual identity in which they fashioned an ideal self so that they would impress others. This method of improving social capital and appearance boasted one’s self-concept and self-esteem in both the online and the real world (Urista et al. , 2009). Generally, 80% of Facebook friends were peers of similar age. Attitudes varied when participants were asked about having older adults (especially parents) as Facebook friends. Some said they felt it would invade their privacy; others said that they needed to separate family life from their own social life. This study suggested that friendships with parents on Facebook could create problems and threaten their self-concept because their private life could become public (West et al. , 2009). Self-disclosures in social media are not a single communication act, but rely also on other’s interpretations on these disclosures and the communication behaviors that follow (Jiang et al. , 2011). Social support from others on social media websites influences how an individual self-discloses (Lui LaRose, 2008). Individuals receive social support from other users which helps to maintain existing relationships; this has been found to improve quality of life in college students (Lui LaRose, 2008). Obtaining comments from other users on pictures and wall postings improves images that individuals have on themselves. It is a way of receiving attention from a broad spectrum of people in an indirect way. A timely response elicits gratification and good feelings of self and satisfaction of personal and interpersonal desires (Urista et al. , 2009). This self-disclosure provided the framework for a theoretical model that high disclosure generates relationship intimacy (Jiang et al. , 2011). In one’s search for intimacy, a good selfconcept is essential. METHOD First the researchers successfully completed an online Human Subjects Training from the National Institute of Health (NIH) site. Approval from the university human subject review committee was obtained prior to beginning the study. Participants consisted of 96 undergraduate college students attending a mid western university in the US. A convenient and stratified sampling method was used to acquire the Use of social media, Page 6 Journal of Technology Research sample. Volunteer students from various classes completed the study. Various college classes were selected to provide a stratified sample of gender and age. The Use of Social Media Questionnaire was used to collect data. The written questionnaire was created by the principal researchers with some questions adapted from Pew Internet and American Life Project’s â€Å"Social Networking Websites and Teens Survey† by Lenhart, Purcell, Smith, and Zickuhr (2010). Questions in the survey included the following areas: demographics, extent of usage of social media, effect on communication, and attitudes of self. The questions on the instrument were designed to satisfy the research questions as set forth in the introduction of this study. Therefore, the questionnaire was considered to have content validity. RESULTS The results indicated that a total of 96 undergraduate students responded to the questionnaire. There were 67 (69. 8%) females and 29 (30. 2%) males included in the sample. Among the participants, 90% were between the ages of 18-33. Of the undergraduate college students sampled, 71. 9% were juniors and senior level while 28. 1% were freshman and sophomore level. Of the participants sampled, 79% were Caucasian, 16% were AfricanAmerican, 4% were Hispanic, and 1% other. RQ1: What is the extent of usage of social media among college students? Descriptive statistics and frequencies were used to conduct the analysis. To measure the extent of usage of social media, five questions were used. The questions were as follows: 1) Do you use any forms of social networking sites on the internet, 2) Check all forms of social networking sites that you currently use, 3) Which social networking profile do you update most often, 4) How often do you visit social networking sites, and 5) Why do you use social networking sites. The highest score one could acquire for the variable of social media was a 14. The mean score was 9. 6. Results showed that 65. 6% of participants scored between 10 and 13. The score with the highest frequency was 10, which comprised of 40. 6% of the sample. All of the college students sampled indicated that they did use some form of social media, as indicated in Table 1 (Appendix). Participants reported updating their Facebook page the most (88. 5%), and Twitter (11. 5%). Frequency of use indicated that 57 (59. 4%) students visited a social networking site several times a day. Reasons for using the social networking sites varied. Communication with family and friends was the most popular reason students used social media, with 91. 7% of participants indicating this was the reason. Also, 59. 4% said they used the sites for entertainment and 57. 3% said they used the sites when they felt bored. Additional reasons reported included planning activities (33. 3%), companionship (11. 5%), and other reasons such as communicating with people far away (10. 4%). RQ2: Is there a relationship between extent of usage of social media and communication with family and friends? Use of social media, Page 7 Journal of Technology Research To measure perceived communication skills, nine questions were used. The questions were as follows: 1) Do you use social networking websites to communicate with friends, 2) Do you use social networking websites to communicate with family, 3) Do you prefer using social networking websites over face-to-face communication, 4) In what ways do you communicate with friends and family on social networking websites, 5) How often do you communicate with friends and family using social networking sites, 6) Has using social networking websites made keeping in contact with friends and family easier, 7) Do you ever use social networking websites to stay in touch with friends and family you rarely see in person, 8) Do you ever use social networking websites to stay in touch with friends and family you see often, and 9) Does using social networking websites help you communicate with people face-to-face better. The highest score one could acquire for the variable of perceived communication skills was a 21. The mean score was 14 with a mode of 13. Results of the surve y indicated the importance of social media use as a communication tool with friends and family as indicated in Table 2 (Appendix). Of the students included in the sample, 50% reported communicating with family and friends on social networking sites every day. Other students reported using sites to communicate with family and friends a few days a week (40%), every few weeks (8%), and less often (2%). According to the 96 students surveyed, 74 (77%) prefer face-to-face communication over communication via the internet (23%). Pearson correlation was conducted to see if there was a relationship between social media and communication with family and friends. There was a . 586 Pearson correlation between use of social media and perceived communication with family and friends as indicated in Table 3 (Appendix). RQ3- Is there a relationship between self-concept of college students and their use of social media? To measure self-concept, seven questions were used. The questions were as follows: 1) Do you ever use social networking websites to make new friends, 2) How often do you spend time â€Å"lurking† on social networking sites, 3) How often do you post status updates, 4) How often do other users comment on your personal profile, 5) Have you used social networking sites to impress other users, 6) Does your communication with other users on social networking sites positively or negatively affect your self-esteem, and 7) How many internet â€Å"friends† do you have on social networking websites. The highest score one could acquire for the variable of self-concept was a 29. The mean score was 16 with a mode of 19. Of the students sampled, 45 (47%) expressed lurking on a site every day. An equal number of students indicated that social media sites had affected them positively (49%) or that it did not affect them positively or negatively (49%). Pearson correlation was conducted to see whether there was a relationship between usage of social media and selfconcept. There was a . 658 Pearson correlation between self-concept and social media use as indicated by Table 4 (Appendix). The number of â€Å"friends† the students reported having on social networking sites was found to be mostly between the range of 301-600, with 39% of participants reporting they had that many friends. Additionally, 33% of students reported having 0-300 friends, 10% reported having 601-900 friends, 6% reported having 901-1200 friends, and 4 % reported having 12011500 friends, 3% had 1801-2100 friends, 2% reported having 1501-1800 friends, and only 2% had friends in the 2101 and above range. Use of social media, Page 8 Journal of Technology Research A correlation was found between the number of friends one has on social media networks and the extent of usage, communication, and self-concept. The was a significant correlation between all three variables and the number of friends on social networking sites as indicated by Table 5 (Appendix). The variable of self-concept had a higher correlation with the number of friends one had than communication and the extent of usage of social media usage. DISCUSSION The findings of this study suggested that almost all college students were using some form of social networking website. This is significant since Lenhart et al. (2010) found that 71% of young adults have a Facebook account. The current study indicated that Facebook and e-mail were the social network websites of choice, with 99% of college students using Facebook and 90% using e-mail. This findings concurred with research by Lenhart et al. (2010) which found that Facebook is the most popular form of social media. Participants in this study indicated that the websites they update the most was Facebook and Twitter. As found in research done by Sheldon (2008) and Quan-Haase and Young (2010), majority of college students visited their social networking sites several times a day, and this shows that the extent of usage of social media sites is frequent. Several reasons were given as to why college students were using social networking websites. The most important reason given was to communicate with family and friends. Entertainment and boredom were also prominent reasons for use social networking sites. These findings are supported by Sheldon (2008) who found that students use Facebook and other websites to pass time, be entertained, and maintain existing relationships with others. It seemed that college students were using social media sites to communicate with others as well as to occupy free time when they were bored. Communicating with friends and family on social media sites was very common among college students in the current study. Only a small number of college students communicate with friends more than family on these social websites, but communication generally was very high. As Baym et al. (2004) indicated, most college students preferred to communicate face-to-face rather than over a computer. However, with friends and family living all over the world and having busy lives, communicating via a computer was a more convenient option. Other studies such as Baym et al. (2007) and Urista et al. (2009) agree that college students communicate over the internet with friends and family that live far away. Students used a variety of ways to communicate with friends and family on social networking sites. Wall posts and status updates were the most common ways to communicate, but students sent private messages and posted photographs as well. Probably, posting wall posts and status updates was easier and faster to communicate than sending private messages or posting photographs. Participants in this study reported communicating with friends and family on social media websites several times in a week. Social networking sites have made it much easier for students to communicate with friends and family. Like Baym et al. (2007), the current study found that with so many people having busy lives or having friends and family that live far away, these sites have helped to maintain contact with those individuals that students rarely saw. Results also showed that social media has helped maintain contact with people who the students saw more regularly. These websites have helped students better communicate with others face-to-face as well. A particular interesting finding was that most college students rated the quality of communication as good, Use of social media, Page 9 Journal of Technology Research but not excellent, fair, or poor. This indicates that quality of communication over the computer is not ideal, but it has positive qualities to it. Students in this study reported were using status updates to communicate with others, however, they did not use them that frequently. Another interesting finding from the current study was that 78% of college students did not use social networking websites to impress others. Unlike previous research such as Jiang et al. (2011), this current study found that most college students were not interested in impressing other users. They posted pictures and tell others about what is happening in their lives, but they may not be trying to impress others with this information. West et al. (2009) and Quan-Haase and Young (2010) found that making new friends over social media websites was not that important to college students. It appears that maintaining existing relationships with friends and family was a more important result of social media. â€Å"Lurking,† or spending time looking at other users’ profiles without having communication with them, was a significant reason for students to be on social networking sites. Like Pempek et al. (2009), the current study also found that the amount of time on social networking sites varies. For the most part, students admitted to lurking several times a day. Unlike past research, the current study found that lurking behaviors seem to be increasing. It is important for students to see what is happening in other individual’s lives, even though they may not talk to them often. Lurking may also be occurring because of entertainment and boredom reasons. The relationship between social media usage on self-concept was also an interesting finding. Liu and LaRose (2008) had found negative effects on self-esteem by using social networking websites. The current study found that college students either believe that social media websites affect their self-esteem positively or neither positively or negatively. Only two participants in this study reported negative feelings due to use of social media. This gives implications that other users’ comments to students on these sites does influence students’ selfconcepts or students do not think about whether social networking sites affect them. Finally, the number of â€Å"friends† college students had on social networking websites may affect their self-concept. The current study found that most college students have about 300 to 600 friends. These findings were consistent with Pempek et al. (2009), who also found similar numbers of friends on social networking sites. However, the current study found that the number of friends individuals have on social networking sites is increasing. Limitations First, there could have been a more equal gender distribution. Compared to females who made up 70% of the sample, there were only 30% of males included in this sample. Also more freshmen and sophomores in the sample would have added to the breadth of the research. The researchers are of the opinion